There are three point of mixture variety

1. Code – Switching

In which a single speaker uses different varieties at different times. 

Code-switching devided 3 part like this below

• Metaphorical Code-Switching where a variety normally used only in one kind of situation is used in a different kind because the topic is the short which would normally arise in the first kind of situation.

• Situational Code-Switching in which each point of switching corresponding to a change in the situation.

• Conversational Code-Switching, there is no such change in the situation in conversational code-switching, nor is there any change in the topic which might lead to methaphorical code-switching .

2. Borrowing

When an item is taken over lock, stock, and barrel from one variety into another, for instead when the name of a Franch dish like boeuf bourgugnon is borrowed for use us an English term.

3. Pidgins 

Pidgins is a variety specially created for the purpose of communicating with some other group, and not used by any community for communivcation themselves. Charateristics of pidgins like that :

• A pidgins based on variety X

• A pidgins is not simply the result of heavy borrowing from one variety into another.

• A pidgins, unlike ordinary language, has not native speaker.

4. Creoles 

a pidgin which has acquired native speakers is called Creole Language or Creole and the process whereby a pidgins term into a creole is called creolisation. 

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

English specific purpose (ESP) is learn english for specific purpose to get the special or specific goals. Needs assesment or need analysis in ESP reaching ESP should not be considered as a different kind of teaching the language but rather as an approach as it is also based on the commonly held belief of teaching language for communicative purposes. The problems that ESP teachers have are similar to those of teachers of  English for general purposes.

Although there are some additional problems that may he beyond methods and pedagogy especially those related to non-linguistic matters. Students needs

are discussed from different angles and the theoretical basis of needs analysis

is derived from the ideas of communicative competence proposed by Hymes

(1972) and Canale and Swain (1980). Different approaches to needs analysis

and its importance are also discussed. 

Needs Assesment or need have vary depending on the purpose of analysis but all take the learner as a focus of analysis. Lawson (1979) defines "need" as "something that is recognized but it is not in any sense "discovered", and its "existence" derives from whatever criteria are thought to be relevant in making the diagnoses. This implies that in order to recognize "needs" one would have to carry out some kind of assessment or evaluation of the existing situation and the diagnosis of assessment results would reveal some deficiency. Widdowson (1981) differentiates "goal-oriented" definition from "processoriented" definition of needs. The former refers to what the learner needs to with the language once he or she has learned it , while the latter refers to what the learner needs to do to actually acquire the language.

Need assesment or need analysis in a language program is often viewed simply as identification of the language forms that the students will likely need to use in the target language  when they are requared to actually understand and to produced the language.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A. DEFENITION OF NEED ASSESMENT

Lawson (1979) defines "need" as "something that is recognized but it is not in any sense "discovered", and its "existence" derives from whatever criteria are thought to be relevant in making the diagnoses. The term ‘need’ is not straight forward as it might appear, and hence the term is sometime use to refer to wants desire, demands, expectation, motivation lacks, constrains, and requirements (Brindley 1984, 28). Need Assesment also like need Analysis are often describe  in term of a linguistic deficiency, that is, describing the different between what a learner can presently do in a language and what he or she should be able to do. the importance of recognizing the present condition of the learner as far as language learning is concerned, and the target situation where the learner will be required to use the language. The "goal-oriented" definition has to do with program aims while the "process-oriented" definition relates to pedagogic objectives (Widdowson. 1983:20).

Need assesment or need analysis in a language program is often viewed simply as identification of the language forms that the students will likely need to use in the target language  when they are requared to actually understand and to produced the language. Needs can be stated in in term of goals and  objective wich in the turn , can serve as the basis for developing test, material, teaching activities and evaluation strategies as well as for reevaluating the precision and acuracy of the orginal needs assesment. Thus needs assessment. Thus needs assessment involves seeking and interpreting information about students needs.

Needs analysis procedure may involve interviews with student to determine perception of their major language difficuties, interview with lectures and instructors, observation of stuent in the class to observe how well they can carry their assignment, examination of their lecture note, essay and so on to determine their difficulties. The aim of need analysis are thus to  the types of situation in wich learners will be using english. The task and activities they are expected to carry out or take part in english, and their existing language skill or abilities with respect to those task ( Munby : 1978 ).

B. TARGET NEEDS SITUATION

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) make a distinction between "target needs" and "learning needs". The target need refers to what the learner needs to do in the target situation and the learning need refers to what the learner needs to do in order to learn.

 They further subcategorize target need into 

1. necessities; what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation, 

2. lacks; thediscrepancy between necessity and what the learner already knows, 

3. wants; what the learner actually wants to learn or what they feel they need. The learner's "wants" may or may not conform those perceived by the teachers or course designers .The learning need is equated to the route of learning.

This concerns things such as how learners learn the language, why they learn it, what resources are available to help them learn (Berwick:1989), borrowing some insights from the field of adult education, defines "need" as " the gap between what is and what should be". The "what is"could be equated to the current state of learner's knowledge and skills and the "what should be" could be interpreted as the target situation requirements. Robinson (1991)

notes that the needs that are established for a particular group of students will be

influenced by the ideological preconceptions of the analyst. A different group of analysts working with the same group of students but with different views on teaching and learning would be highly likely to produce a different set of needs.

C. TYPES OF NEED ASSESMENT

Types of needs are differentiated with reference to the purpose of learning the language, individual differences or the social roles of language in a wider context.

Alderson (1980) differentiates four types of needs:

First, Formal needs which refer to the need to meet the institution requirements such as to pass an exam. 

Second, actual or obligation need which refers to what a student has to do with the language once he has learned it. 

Third, hypothetical future need which refers to the need to become a better professional in the future, and forth, want, which refers to what a student feels want to do or to learn. 

The first and the forth are types of needs during the process of learning or "process-oriented" type, while the second and third are types of needs that are "futureoriented".

Berwick (1989) makes a distinction between felt needs or expressed needs; needs that learners have, and perceived needs; judgment about the educational gaps in other people's experience.

Brindley (1989) identifies two types of needs are:

 First, objective need, which is derivable from factual information about the learner, use of language in daily communication, current language proficiency and language difficulties. 

Second, subjective need. referring to cognitive and affective needs in learning such as personality, confidence, atitude, wants and expectations in learning. Brindley states that while objective needs are accessible through data collection such as tests, identifying subjective needs is difficult because of the "elusive nature of the variables".

Kharma (1980) discusses societal needs and educational needs. The societal need refers to the need of the community as a whole to acquire and use English for international communication, for trade, technology, cultural purposes etc. 

D. THEORETICAL BASIS OF NEEDS ANALYSIS

Much of the literature that is used as bases of needs analysis is derived from the views of communicative competence. Hymes's (1972) discussion on communicative competence theory covers two aspects; linguistic competence, that is the unconscious knowledge of the language, and linguistic performance, that is the use of language associated with the process of encoding and decoding. Language use is judged not only by grammaticality but also by other aspects such as appropriateness As Hymes puts it, "There are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless" . Language use and meaning of utterances also involves aspects that cannot always be explained with reference to formal aspects of language. Grammaticality or structurally similar sentences may be interpreted as a statement, a command, or a request. Or, two sentences with different structures may be understood as the same speech act.

Hymes (1972) mentions four criteria by which communicative competence can be evaluated:

1. Whether something is formally possible. It relates to grammaticality.

2. Whether something is feasible. It relates to psychological acceptability.

3. Whether something is appropriate. It relates to socio-cultural acceptability.

4. Whether something is in fact done, or the speech act is actually performed.

Competence-performance distinction is also extensively discussed in Canale and Swain (1980) as bases for language teaching and testing applications. They refer to Chomsky's weak version of competence as knowledge of grammar and other aspects of language while performance is concerned with social aspects of language while performance of the language such as acceptability.  inappropriate to conclude that the development of grammatical competence is irrelevant or unnecessary for the development of communicative competence".

This statement implies that it is reasonable to take the middle way; that is to combine both approaches in instruction where grammatical aspects of the language are incorporated into meaningful communicative practice. 

E. APPROACHES TO NEEDS ANALYSIS

Several approaches to needs analysis have been proposed. Benesch (1996)

develops a "critical approach" to needs analysis in the area of writing skill for ESL students in which students are trained to develop their skills to evaluate topics through writing assignments. Her writing course was paired with a psychology class and she considered this class as the target situation because it was the students' major. The assignments for the students were taken from topics discussed in the psychology lectures. Among others, students were assigned either individually or in small groups to review lecture notes, write questions about the psychology lectures for class discussions, rewrite questions for meaning and revision, write research papers on a particular topic discussed in the psychology class.

Holec (1980) proposes "self-directed learning" approach to learner needs. This approach is based on the principle that "to teach the learner to learn is to enable him to carry out the various steps which make up the learning process. This "autonomy" of the learner enables appropriate solutions to be found for the problems of differences in the needs. thus, narrowing considerably the gap between what the learner wants to learn and what he does in fact learn" (p.31). Under this approach the learner has the "autonomy" to determine the level of knowledge he wants to achieve, the communicative behavior he believes he will need, the level of competence he wishes to reach, or the objectives he wants to accomplish.

Holliday (1995) proposes an ethnographic approach to needs analysis. It

involves institutional factors in the process of needs analysis. Needs analysis as a

basis of curriculum design will be realistic if there are means for implementing it. In this case, the institution where the analysis is carried out, and the administration staff need to provide supports, access, and resources that are necessary for implementation, such as access to study documents, interviews or visits to offices. 

Munby's analysis is a tool for syllabus design which provides a detailed profile of learners and what they need to be able to do after the course or what they need to study during the course. In addition, the analysis also provides a specification of language skills, functions and forms that are required in order to carry out communication types as described in the needs profile.

In Munby's model, the needs profile comprises answers to questions such as:

Who are the learners?

Which study or occupational area will they need English for?

Where and when will they need to use English, with whom?

Handling which media and modes?

Handling which dialects of English?

At what level?

To participate in which communicative activities?

In what tone?

Answers to these questions form the "communication needs profile" of the learner

which is, then, used as bases for selection of language skills, functions, and forms. In the analysis there are eight parameters used to label the learner's needs: purposive domain, setting, interaction, instrumentality. dialect, target level, communicative event, and communicative key.

Richterich and Chancerel (1980) proposes a "systemic approach" to needs

analysis. This work was done as part of the project for Council of Europe. As the name suggests, the analysis involves administrators who are involved in teaching, teachers and learners - all parties that are involved in language learning. This approach places the learner as the center of the system and decisions concerning objectives, assessment and curriculum are de-signed with reference to the learner's resources. The information for needs analysis is collected from the learner, the teaching institution, the user-institution and society.

Altman (1980) proposes "learner-centered approach" to analyze the learner needs in language teaching. He recognizes that learners have individual characteristics and differences and that the differences should be ad-dressed accordingly through appropriate instructions. In the learning process, the instruction is designed in such a way to meet individual needs and to allow each individual to develop his or her potentials. The learner needs, abilities and interests determine the form and design of the language curriculum. This learner-centered language teaching is based on the premise that every learner is uniquely different and that all learners do not learn a foreign language equally well with the same pace. Therefore, learning materials, mode of learning and time allocations are adapted to suit different individual preferences. Altman (1980) provides a table which accommodates learners' differences with eight different patterns of learning arrangements and modifications to meet individual learning needs.

WHY NEEDS ANALYSIS IS IMPORTANT AND INSTRUMENTS FOR NEEDS

ANALYSIS

The discussions of the importance of needs analysis focus on its roles as a

starting point or a guide for course design, syllabus design, materials selection,

assessment or even classroom activities. Berwick (1989) says that needs assessment is

important for decision planners to design the course. Assessment of a course needs

involvement of learner

Changes concerning learner needs may have to be made during the course with

consultation of the learners.

Hawkey (1980) says that needs analysis is a tool for course designer. This

presupposes a "language training situation with reasonably specific occupational or

educational objectives involving a reasonably homogeneous group of learners" (p.81).

Given the information about learner needs a course designer will be able to produce a

specification of language skills, functions, and forms as required in the learner needs

profile.

McDonough (1984) states that the language needs of the learner should be the

bases for course development. He says, "information on his or her language needs will

help in drawing up a profile to establish coherent objectives, and take subsequent

decisions on course content " (p.29).

Riddell (1991) points to the crucial role that needs analysis plays in syllabus and

course design. As he puts it, "...through it [needs analysis] the course designer becomes

equipped to match up the content of the program with the requirements of the student

body [what learners need]" (p.75). With reference to the third world context, he

considers teaching materials as an important factor. Teachers can use published

materials, adapt or write in house materials. Whatever option is taken, the assessment of

student needs has to be taken into consideration (p.75).

Bowers (1980) notes the importance of needs as a guide in syllabus development,

materials and examination. The importance of needs is quoted in Clark

(1978), who says that, "The first step in any language teaching project must surely be to

design a syllabus that will reflect the language needs and wishes of the learner concerned,

and that will accord with a responsible theory of language learning" (p.67 in Bowers).

According to Jordan (1997), needs analysis should be the starting point for devising

syllabus, course materials and classroom activities (p.22). In Shutz and Derwing (1981),

needs analysis is considered as the first step that any course planner should take. They

quote Palmer and McKay (1978:3) who say that,

"Many well-intentioned language programs ... have foundered because either no

consideration was given to the actual use the learner intended to make of the language

or because the list of uses drawn up by the course designer was based on imagination

rather than an objective assessment of the learner's situation, and proved to be

inaccurate and in many cases entirely inappropriate to his real needs" (p.30 in Schutz

and Derwing).

Recognizing that language problems can also be traced through sociological

context, Schutz and Derwing agree that, "...a detailed analysis of the situations of

language use is a pre-requisite even to the selection of the particular linguistic forms or

structures that ought to be taught" (p.31).

Brindley (1980) argues that objective needs should be used as a starting point in

course design. He says, "If instruction is to be centered on the learners and relevant to

their purposes, then information about their current and desired interaction patterns and

their perceived difficulties is clearly helpful in establishing program goals which in turn

can be translated into learning objectives" (p.64). He further states that needs analysis is

essential in two different ways; (I ) as a guide in setting broad goals, and (2) as a guide

in

the learning process. The importance of needs is also recognized in the learner-centered

language teaching. In this system. the learner and the teacher need to continuously

share information as to what the learner wants or needs to study during the course.

Needs analysis should be carried out throughout the course in order to adjust the

learning objectives as the need arises. In other words, feedback from the learner can be

used as bases for modifying learning objectives. Savage and Storer (1992) discusses the

role that learners can have in the process of needs assessment. Learners can contribute

substantially to the course if they are actively involved at all stages of the course

design; at the initial, during, and final stages of course evaluation.

Questionnaires and interviews are two commonly used instruments for needs

analysis. Ciiiistisou and Krahnke (1986) bel icvc that students' own experience can

be used as a basis for planning teaching program and curriculum design. They observe

that much of what is taught is based on the teacher's beliefs rather than facts (p.63).

Christison and Krahnke use structured questionnaire to find out the students' language

learning experience during the pro-gram. The questionnaire covers language skills area,

out-of-class language experience. aspects of the language program and opinions about

their language teachers.

Clowes (1994) analyzes language needs of industry. He interviewed people

working in the industry to find out their perception of needs (what is the need and what

are the reasons for it) and language use (which people in business will be using languages

and for what purposes).

Howell's (1995) study on students' needs and expectations of Chinese language

learning reveals some interesting results. His study uses questionnaire and interview

techniques to find out what the students need during the program, what aspects of the

program that need improvements and views on how well the program prepares the

students to enter business or employment in general. He assumes that "students' views

can provide valuable information for reviewing of developing effective strategies for

learning and teaching ..." (p.22).

Jordan (1993) studies language learning difficulties experienced by over-seas

students in Britain. He uses questionnaire which covers students' language learning

experience in their own countries, expectations during the language course in Britain and

difficulties they experience during the course.' Schutz and Derwing (1981) use

questionnaire to find out students' characteristics, previous English language learning

experience, motivations, attitudes and relevance of the program to future job

The approaches to needs analysis and the ideas discussed int the previous sections

can be used as the basis to form a model as a framework for an ESP syllabus design. The

model is presented below.

The present situation analysis is an analysis of the present condition of teaching

and learning situation covering aspects related to students' characteristics, staffing,

materials, syllabus and academic records containing data about students' language

learning. The target situation analysis is an analysis of the work-place where the

students will work or use the language. This will produce an analysis of language use,

functions and types of activities or events which involve the use of English. The results

of both analyses can be used as bases for English language syllabus design. As can be

seen in the figure, needs-analysis is the starting point in the process of syllabus design

in ESP. Although `needs' are defined differently and the types of needs as well as its

approaches vary, the purposes of needs-analysis is to form a basis on which a language

syllabus can be designed.

CONCLUSION

Needs-analysis should be seen as an indispensable aspect of ESP syllabus

design in order to link the present students' academic needs with their needs in their

prospective employment. Needs-analysis involves not only the students but also all

parties in the educational system and relevant user institutions that ultimately employ

students. The literature in this field abounds with models and approaches of needsanalysis

and they should be reviewed and selected on the basis of contexts and

conditions of teaching and learning in Indonesia.

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